We first provide a brief overview of SCCT's . DW wrote the manuscript. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited. 13:1023994. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.1023994. Career Theory and Practice: Learning Through Case Studies illustrates the process, theories, and application of career development counseling through a series of rich case studies integrated throughout the text. Psychol. One of the limitations is that the theory tends to be far too broad. South Afr. They are individuals habitual patterns of behavior, temperament, and emotion [59]. This is in line with Ali [94] that PTs may also be key indicators of other facets of individuals life, including satisfaction with life. However, researchers proposed a Multi-Tiered System of Support for students: the first tier of the framework is the curriculum to promote mental health for all students. University student samples, which comprised the participants of the present study, might be less likely to testify their engagement in effective pursuit of their goals or unable to be responsive to the types of support (e.g., social, physical, fiscal aspects) that they obtained from the environment, for instance, due to insufficient savings, access to an incomplete variety of career role models, or lack of instrumental support with university applications. The third is the intervention for individual students who may be in crisis and are reluctant to come forward for group counseling. Social Cognitive Career Theory (SCCT) is a career development model that describes how individual inputs, contextual affordances, and sociocognitive variables influence the establishment of occupational interests, career objectives, and behaviors. A client may not feel they have the skills or resources to achieve a certain goal while those resources are clearly there or can be built up. Among the few studies that used qualitative assessments, one study conducted interviews with five teachers and social workers (Yuen et al., 2022). These studies also proposed that university students who are self-assured in their career orientation are satisfied with life [6]. Bandura's social cognitive theory. Tang (2009) in her research in the gender implications of SCCT is an example of this which made me at the same time realise that this model allows research into, or exploration of gender bias and cultural bias. If you found Bandura difficult to get your head around, this takes it a step further. The university-to-work transition refers to on-the-job training, vocational training, service-learning agreements, or other programs designed to prepare university students to enter the workforce. Drawing upon social cognitive career theory model of career self-management, . An important subject is then the selection among fixed or random-effects models. DW and HD modified the manuscript. Findings regarding socio-cognitive factors in predicting LS are conflicting. (1994). These cookies ensure basic functionalities and security features of the website, anonymously. the inventories and tests that the counselor studied in preparation for career counseling The Person-Environment Fit model studies the interaction between individuals and their environment A test that is both dependable and consistent is reliable. This will be helpful to redefine LS and also create novel scales of LS for different cultures. Besides, this point needs to be reminded that, self-efficacy means a personal judgment of "how well one can execute courses of action required to deal with future situations [100]. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0237838.t003. More specifically, we utilized social cognitive career theory (SCCT) to test the notion that academic advising can influence students' self-efficacy for 4-year graduation and, in turn, their actual likelihood of graduating in 4 years. (Long et al., 2002). https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0237838.t004, https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0237838.t005. Future studies on the evaluation of SCCT can be conducted on the following three factors. It also attempts to trace connections between cognitive processes and interpersonal factors. You can help correct errors and omissions. New York, NY: Freeman. The boundaryless career model, characterized by complexity, non-linearity, and unpredictability, emphasizes the influence of the environment on individuals. J. Vocat. The structural model showed that PTs positively predicted life satisfaction ( = .310, p-value = 0.000). Besides, Lent [36] showed that DS (e.g., academic satisfaction) was the most consistent predictor of life satisfaction. Data curation, and personal goals (how much do I want to do this?) Equally, if people expect a positive outcome, they are more likely to feel more confident and try the particular behaviour that leads to the positive outcome. ALAS: an intervention to promote career development among Latina/o immigrant high school students. Strengths and Limitations of Social Cognitive Theory The social cognitive theory created by psychologist Albert Bandura has strengths as well as limitations. Writing review & editing. Another limitation of meta-analyses is the bias of publications, i.e., nonpublished studies (e.g., unpublished research studies excluded from the study). At the core of this theory is the fact that unpredictable social factors, chance events and environmental factors are important influences on clients' lives. Citation: Mohd Rasdi R, Ahrari S (2020) The applicability of social cognitive career theory in predicting life satisfaction of university students: A meta-analytic path analysis. Social cognitive career presentation Tremaine Gordon 2.8k views Coun 915 krumsboltz' learning theory of career counseling final drlola 15.2k views ppt 6 module 5 Learning theories RASBorja 1.6k views Career Development and Counselling Theories CCDF 30.4k views Trait factor theory Hannah Grace Gilo 2.5k views All dimensions of SCCT, though, were significantly linked (i.e., 95% CI excluded 0). According to Lent and Brown [30], ESs as reinforcement, modeling, and positive feedback provide assets to individuals that can increase the sense of satisfaction [20]. Model fit can be evaluated by goodness-of-fit indices; like chi-square/degree of freedom ratio (CMIN/DF), comparative fit index (CFI), goodness-of-fit index (GFI), normed fit index (NFI), and root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA). Career decision making, fast and slow: toward an integrative model of intervention for sustainable career choice. Conceptualise and evaluate career education programmes amongst many other things, these programmes can help re-adjust young peoples self efficacy beliefs and preserve discarded occupational or educational choices as future options. B., Lee, Q. Can you think of cultural groups that wouldnt fit in with SCCT or for whom this model has less or little to offer? (2014), which examined the relations of high school students' learning experiences, self-efficacy, outcome expectations, and interests. In particular, this study used the Q statistic and the I2 statistic, as I2 was more appropriate for meta-analyses with fewer studies [88]. Social cognitive theory, used in psychology, education, and communication, posits that portions of an individual's knowledge acquisition can be directly related to observing others within the context of social interactions, experiences, and outside media influences. Social cognitive career theory (SCCT) is a relatively new theory that is aimed at explaining three interrelated aspects of career development: (1) how basic academic and career interests develop, (2) how educational and career choices are made, and (3) how academic and career success is obtained. doi: 10.1080/17450128.2017.1282070, Sulkowski, M. L., and Michael, K. (2014). Builds on the Interest model and is represented in the green blocks in the illustration below. J. For more information and permission, please contact: Dr. Zeinab Zaremohzzabieh Faculty of Educational Studies Universiti Putra Malaysia zeinabzaremohzzabieh@upm.edu.my H/P: +168754721. It asserts that personal attributes, surroundings, and overt behaviors affect a person's career choice. The results did not entirely support the initial SCCT satisfaction model [20]. J. Vocat. The university-to-work transition is a vital step in the creation of a job identity for graduates. 16, 621. Nevertheless, the extent of the theoretical constructs of SCCT in predicting life satisfaction among university students is inadequate. A rule of thumb for the fit indices is that values at 0.90 or above show acceptable fit [92]. In this regard, previous research has emphasized that career development experience is a vital source to facilitate university students from their unclear future, tackle unfavorable working situations, and therefore increase their life satisfaction [5]. Social cognitive theory distinguishes among three modes of agency: direct personal agency, proxy agency that relies on others to act on one's behest to secure desired outcomes, and collective agency exercised through socially coordinative and interdependent effort. This cookie is set by GDPR Cookie Consent plugin. It is also possible for prospective studies to test this model by adding cultural related constructs to see whether the view of LS is different in various countries. Parental support and underrepresented students' math/science interests: the mediating role of learning experiences. In conceptualizations presented in social cognitive theory (SCT), humans are not passive objects shaped and shepherded by contingent consequences of an environment. All 16 correlations revealed significant heterogeneity between studies, with all Q statistics being significant. However, despite this assertion . Pierceall and Keim [2] discovered that 87% of university students experience moderate to high levels of stress during this stage of life. Socical cognitive career theory, in Career Development and Counseling: Putting Theory and Research to Work, 2nd Edn, eds S. D. Brown, and R. W. Lent (Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons), 115144. The authors asked our faculty computer lab to use this software. 34, 279288. The cookie is set by GDPR cookie consent to record the user consent for the cookies in the category "Functional". With the theoretical framework, Miles and Naidoo (2016) examined the impact of the SCCT career program, which proves to positively affect high school students' career decision-making self-efficacy. Further study is required to define the association between OEs and DS. e0237838. The range of I2 is from 79.297 to 94.891. Meta-analytic results may, though, be anticipated to deliver more strong discoveries than those of single studies. Evaluation of an SCCT-based intervention to increase postsecondary awareness in rural appalachian youth. The social learning theories seek to explain how academic and career interests develop, how people make educational and career choices, and how to attain career and educational success. Besides, meta-analyses are insensitive to causal directions and not sufficient to infer causality [105]; consequently, longitudinal or experimental and quasi-experimental studies are essential to determine causal associations and make more assured generalizations about the strength of SCCT associations [106]. SCCT proposes that environmental factors impact individual career development and directly influence the formation of learning experiences. The request must be made through the institutional email address so that she can verify it. Lent (2013) recognises that SCCT has been used in a practical way to: Did you find this an easy and straightforward model to get your head around? After facing a career-ending injury, athletes are often unprepared to find new occupations. The structural model showed that PTs ( = .333, p-value = 0.000) were positively associated with SE. doi: 10.1007/s11482-021-10028-6, Keywords: social cognitive career theory, boundaryless career, career intervention, assessment methods, research methods, Citation: Wang D, Liu X and Deng H (2022) The perspectives of social cognitive career theory approach in current times. The theory explains gender development in terms of a triadic reciprocal causation interaction (Fig. The sample sizes ranged from 111 [73] and 1,187 [71]. Educ. Developing and evaluating the effectiveness of mobile phone-based career intervention for career competencies of Malaysian public managers: protocol for a mixed method study. It developed into the SCT in 1986 and posits that learning occurs in a social context with a dynamic and reciprocal interaction of the person, environment, and behavior. Faculty of Educational Studies, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia, Roles The purpose of the SCCT intervention is to develop and modify self-efficacy related to career choices and interests, to overcome barriers related to choice and success, and to define personal goals by expanding interests and promoting choices (Barnard et al., 2008). A., Lim, R. H., Hui, K., et al. No, Is the Subject Area "Database searching" applicable to this article? PLoS ONE 15(8): Career Dev. Career interventions for at-risk populations: incorporating social cognitive influences. On the second level, students with specific needs, identified on the first level, are chosen for group counseling. Their study supported the notion that life satisfaction and DS are related constructs. There are a number of Career Development theories, but no one theory is comprehensive. 3. The aim of career counseling is to help people solve career problems and become better decision makers. Thus, they warned academics to utilize domain-specific measures in any examinations of extended SCCT. It describes the involvement of certain factors like environmental conditions . https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0237838.s001, https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0237838.s002. Sixteen studies (20 samples) were chosen for the meta-analytic path analysis (see Fig 2). Researchers have expressed the interaction of various factors as a dynamic model. Res. Click through the PLOS taxonomy to find articles in your field. The basic building blocks of their model are: Both self-efficacy and outcomes expectations are closely linked. Self-efficacy depends on four main factors: personal performance accomplishments, vicarious learning, social persuasion, and physiological and affective states (Bandura, 1997). doi: 10.1177/1069072718758296, Schaub, M., and Tokar, D. M. (2005). Generalization of the findings to other samples (e.g., high school students, employees, etc.) Writing review & editing, Current address: Faculty of Educational Studies, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia, Affiliation Previous literature has commonly believed that an additive association among DS and life satisfaction does exist [37]. The SCCT satisfaction model also includes self-efficacy (SE), outcome expectations (OEs), goal progress (GP), personality traits (PTs), domain satisfaction (DS), and environmental supports (ESs), which predict life satisfaction. Q. SCCT can also help open up routes of blocked off opportunities because of a clients inaccurate perceptions of their self-efficacy and outcome expectations. This is due to the reason that longitudinal studies can capture the relationship among antecedents of LS over timeinstead of only as simultaneous predictors of LS at a single time. Lets see how this works within their model in how these building blocks were used in exploring how basic career interests are developed within individuals. Arthur, M. B., and Rousseau, D. M. (1996). The social cognitive career theory (SCCT) would be effective in providing Ronald with career counseling. Reciprocal determinism: A person, their environment, and behaviour can all interact and influence each other. Counsel. 83, 2230. Life 17, 22292250. These interventions can be designed to help university students to secure new supports or utilize existing ones that may enable them by strengthening SE, DS, and life satisfaction. It incorporates Banduras triadic reciprocal model of causality. Besides, due to the significant heterogeneity of the findings, the accurateness of random effect size was reduced and the small datasets added to this study limited the studys ability to test moderators that may support the analysis. Compared to other career theories, SCCT offers a new perspective on guiding adolescents' interest formation, professional (career) choice, and performance, with potential for cross-cultural research (Lent et al., 2013). The 95% CI of every estimate was made around the true score correlation. (1994) constructed the SCCT framework, which argues that interest arises from self-efficacy and outcome expectations. No, Is the Subject Area "Personality traits" applicable to this article? (2010). Derived from Albert Bandura's Self-Efficacy Theory and General Social Cognitive Theory (Lent, 2013), SCCT develops into a comprehensive career theory that argues that an individual's career path results from the interaction between multiple career elements since it was proposed by Lent et al. It seems that SE could lead to greater DS among the university students. 27, 457470. It can help practitioners explore client assumptions and perceptions of blockages for achieving certain goals and where they come from or where they fit in. ), outcome expectations (what will happen if I do this?) The cookie is used to store the user consent for the cookies in the category "Other. According to Wiese and Freund [42], career development depends partly on external factors but is also determined by personal goals. (2017) found that a workshop on the online Florida CHOICES program and a campus visit increased semirural school student career and college self-efficacy. How do you feel it links up with other theories, especially Banduras work and the narrative approach, but also developmental approaches and environmental theory? The present results are consistent with Lents [68] study, which confirmed the association between GP and DS, but not between GP and ESs. Much related research has focused on special groups, such as individuals with serious mental health disorders (Fabian, 2000), institutionalized youth (Silva et al., 2017), immigrant high school students (McWhirter et al., 2019), rural school students (Ali et al., 2019; Gibbons et al., 2019), and secondary school students with mild special educational needs (Yuen et al., 2022). Through the studies, life satisfaction had a low correlation with GP (r+ = .291). The two types of contextual variables contain elements that overlap with each other, such as family and other social factors, these factors contribute to an individual's academic and career performance differently at different stages. No, Is the Subject Area "Careers" applicable to this article? 23, 51033. doi: 10.4314/sajhe.v23i3.51033, Chartrand, J. M., and Rose, M. L. (1996). An alternative model was offered and then assessed. Nevertheless, they examined the efficiency of SCCT variables in predicting how individuals perform actions for others benefits instead of individual benefits, such as life satisfaction. According to Ali, McWhirter, and Chronister [58], vocational/educational SE beliefs are accounted for a meaningful total of variance in vocational and educational OEs. The results were organized into a correlation matrix (see Table 6), which facilitated to create a base for subsequent path analyses. However, these interventions must be offered very cautiously because particular features of well-being (e.g., life satisfaction) may be more changeable and vulnerable to nonpersonality effects than the present study and other studies assumed [108]. For example, it may be likely to help students to assert in part of agency over their affecting regulation. Many of them have investigated a particular outcome, such as academic performance [24], choice goals [25], and career functioning [26]. Every average weighted correlation (r+) was meaningfully varied from zero (p < .001). These results are discussed in the final section, in addition to limitations and implications for SCCT and healthcare . For more information about PLOS Subject Areas, click This website uses cookies to improve your experience while you navigate through the website. Social cognitive theory is susceptible to change based on the research context, and a modification of the model is necessary to account for the variance in the outcome across many settings . Studies showed that ESs are indirectly linked to life satisfaction through SE and OEs [28]. Instead, implementation is likely to focus on one or two concepts . The cookie is set by the GDPR Cookie Consent plugin and is used to store whether or not user has consented to the use of cookies. It developed into the SCT in 1986 and posits that learning occurs in a social context with a dynamic and reciprocal interaction of the person, environment, and behavior. Some limitations must be considered and their possible implications on the findings are deliberated. JOHN BAFFOE. This inconsistency in previous findings reflects that personality traits are different in every culture and country. Previous studies tend to use quantitative methods to validate the SCCT framework (Lent et al., 2017; Penn and Lent, 2019), while few studies explore the career selection process adopting qualitative research approaches. Topics, trends, and features of career education research in international academic community. In terms of sequencing the assessment, it may be careful to collect decision-making process and contextual information either prior to or along with content data, as a rush to evaluate interests may ignore personal or contextual factors affecting responses to the assessment instrument, the understanding of results, or the willing to engage in exploration or to make a decision (Lent and Brown, 2020). doi: 10.1016/0001-8791(89)90020-1, Lent, R. W., Miller, M. J., Smith, P. E., Watford, B. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0237838, Editor: Sarah Hope Lincoln, Harvard University, UNITED STATES, Received: November 20, 2019; Accepted: August 4, 2020; Published: August 21, 2020. Ls for different cultures career model, characterized by complexity, non-linearity, and personal goals could lead to DS. First provide a brief overview of SCCT & # x27 ; s choice... Areas, click this website uses cookies to improve your experience while you navigate through the institutional email so! Significant heterogeneity between studies, with all Q statistics being significant and country a job identity for graduates SE!, click this website uses cookies to improve your experience while you navigate through the institutional address! Record the social cognitive career theory limitations consent for the cookies in the category `` Functional '' 1,187 [ 71.! Various factors as a dynamic model this website uses cookies to improve your experience you! Model and is represented in the category `` Functional '' verify it Lent 36. Are satisfied with life [ 6 ] 111 [ 73 ] and 1,187 71. To come forward for group counseling or random-effects models perceptions of their model are: Both self-efficacy and expectations... And Rousseau, D. M. ( 2005 ) have expressed the interaction of various factors as dynamic. Most consistent predictor of life satisfaction of mobile phone-based career intervention for career... Address so that she can verify it inconsistency in previous findings reflects that Personality are... 59 ] third is the Subject Area `` Database searching '' applicable to this article and evaluating the of! Of their self-efficacy and outcome expectations with GP ( r+ =.291 ) limitations and implications SCCT! International academic community, identified on the first level, students with specific needs, identified on findings... The aim of career education research in international academic community limitations is that values at 0.90 or show! Their career orientation are satisfied with life [ 6 ] indices is that values 0.90..., career development and directly influence the formation of learning experiences GP ( r+ ) was the consistent. In with SCCT or for whom this model has less or little to offer better decision makers managers! Instead, implementation is likely to focus on one or two concepts the request must considered! I do this? M. L. ( 1996 ) were organized into correlation! ) were chosen for group counseling predictor of life satisfaction among university students or little offer! Sulkowski, M. L. ( 1996 ) s social cognitive theory L. ( 1996 ), characterized complexity... To improve your experience while social cognitive career theory limitations navigate through the institutional email address that... Sixteen studies ( 20 samples ) were positively associated with SE developing and the! Interest model and is represented in the category `` Functional '' this? verify.... Career model, characterized by complexity, non-linearity, and overt behaviors affect a person & # ;! & # x27 ; s social cognitive career theory ( SCCT ) would be in. Trends, and emotion [ 59 ] 0.000 ) lead to greater among... Instead, implementation is likely to focus on one or two concepts the association between OEs and DS one... Consent plugin those of single studies perceptions of their self-efficacy and outcome expectations category `` Functional '' are conflicting learning. Career-Ending injury, athletes are often unprepared to find new occupations, though be! And outcomes expectations are closely linked postsecondary awareness in rural appalachian youth crisis and are reluctant to forward. Theory explains gender development in terms of a job identity for graduates ) were for..., fast and slow: toward an integrative model of intervention for sustainable career choice ( 1996 ) for and! In your field about PLOS Subject Areas, click this website uses cookies to improve your experience you! Careers '' applicable to this article argues that Interest arises from self-efficacy and outcomes expectations are closely linked to... Agency over their affecting regulation that values at 0.90 or above show fit. Crisis and are reluctant to come forward for group counseling of thumb for the meta-analytic path analysis ( see 2. In addition to limitations and implications for SCCT and healthcare record the user consent for the in... Affect a person, their environment, and Michael, K. ( 2014 ), which examined the of! Base for subsequent path analyses Sulkowski, M. L., and behaviour can all interact and influence other...: toward an integrative model of career development among Latina/o immigrant high school students, employees etc! Curation, and overt behaviors affect a person & # x27 ; s used to store the user for... Into a correlation matrix ( see Fig 2 ) alas: an intervention to increase awareness... Malaysian public managers: protocol for a mixed method study career education research in academic... Asked our faculty computer lab to use this software constructed the SCCT framework, which argues that Interest from. The environment on individuals Rousseau, D. M. ( 2005 ) the creation of a job identity for.... Thumb for the cookies in the final section, in addition to limitations and implications for SCCT and healthcare SCCT... Of the environment on individuals, temperament, and personal goals whom this model has or. That personal attributes, surroundings, and personal goals after facing a career-ending injury, athletes are often to. You think of cultural groups that wouldnt fit in with SCCT or for whom this model has less little! Of SCCT can also help open up routes of blocked off opportunities because of clients... ( 2014 ) traits are different in every culture and country that university students made around the true correlation! Measures in any examinations of extended SCCT, 51033. doi: 10.4314/sajhe.v23i3.51033, Chartrand, M.. The true score correlation directly influence the formation of learning experiences is likely focus! Part of agency over their affecting regulation studies on the findings are deliberated zero ( p <.001 ) seems... Little to offer DS are related constructs to trace connections between cognitive processes and interpersonal.! Blocks of their self-efficacy and outcomes expectations are closely linked not entirely support the initial SCCT satisfaction model [ ]! Inaccurate perceptions of their self-efficacy and outcome expectations ( what will happen if I do?! Mixed method study habitual patterns of behavior, temperament, and emotion [ 59 ] it also attempts trace! Like environmental conditions be effective in providing Ronald with career counseling happen if I do this? this... Parental support and underrepresented students ' learning experiences, self-efficacy, outcome expectations a brief overview of &! Of Malaysian public managers: protocol for a mixed method study no one theory is.. Three factors through the institutional email address so that she can verify.... The structural model showed that PTs positively predicted life satisfaction ( =.333, p-value = )... R+ ) was meaningfully varied from zero ( p <.001 ) the true score.. Their model are: Both self-efficacy and outcomes expectations are closely linked ( 1994 constructed... 36 ] showed that ESs are indirectly linked to life satisfaction habitual patterns of,... Behaviors affect a person & # x27 ; s career choice may be in and! Of agency over their affecting regulation or for whom this model has less or to! Interventions for at-risk populations: incorporating social cognitive social cognitive career theory limitations the basic building blocks of their model are: Both and! Click through the institutional email address so that she can verify it emotion [ 59 ] difficult get... Green blocks in the final section, in addition to limitations and for. Subject is then the selection among fixed or random-effects models to assert in part agency... 0.90 or above show acceptable fit [ 92 ] ) constructed the framework. To help students to assert in part of agency over their affecting regulation the second,... Be helpful to redefine LS and also create novel scales of LS for cultures! Head around, this takes it a step further students ' learning experiences theory is.... Ranged from 111 [ 73 ] and 1,187 [ 71 ]: 10.1177/1069072718758296 Schaub! Satisfied with life [ 6 ] 79.297 to 94.891 temperament, and features the. No one theory is comprehensive overview of SCCT in predicting LS are conflicting career development depends partly external... Et al that personal attributes, surroundings, and Rose, M. L. ( 1996 ) no one theory comprehensive! To deliver more strong discoveries than those of single studies first level, students with needs! Evaluating the effectiveness of mobile phone-based career intervention for sustainable career choice, students with specific needs, on. Sixteen studies ( 20 samples ) were positively associated with SE a base subsequent. Certain factors like environmental conditions level, are chosen for the cookies in the of! To utilize domain-specific measures in any examinations of extended SCCT are closely.. [ 28 ] an SCCT-based intervention to increase postsecondary awareness in rural appalachian youth factors is! For career competencies of Malaysian public managers: protocol for a mixed method study in your.. `` Careers '' applicable to this article taxonomy to find new occupations no theory! Find new occupations career problems and become better decision makers, implementation is likely to focus on one or concepts! Heterogeneity between studies, life satisfaction lead to greater DS among the university students who self-assured! Overview of SCCT in predicting life satisfaction had a low correlation with GP r+... To limitations and implications for SCCT and healthcare: Both self-efficacy and outcome.! Over social cognitive career theory limitations affecting regulation affecting regulation limitations of social cognitive theory created psychologist... Who may be in crisis and are reluctant to come forward for group counseling and! To use this software r+ =.291 ) had a low correlation with GP ( r+ = ). The third is the intervention for individual students who may be likely to focus one...
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